The world of high-speed railways and trains is constantly evolving. High-speed rail (HSR) networks and rolling stock stand at the cutting edge of technological and scientific progress, driving significant advances in industry and national economies. Over the past six decades, HSR systems across the globe have made remarkable strides. Today, many countries are actively discussing and planning new HSR corridors, including those within the 1,520 mm gauge area, signalling a continued commitment to this transformative mode of transport.
Published in the almanac “Rolling Stock Market. Kazakhstan” for the TransLogistica Kazakhstan transport and logistics exhibition
Development of HSR systems
Reducing travel time and thereby improving mobility has always been a fundamental driver of transport development. Consequently, increasing speed has remained one of the priority technological goals throughout the evolution of railways.
Series 0 train in December, 1964. Source: Kyodo News
The first steps towards HSR travel were taken as early as the beginning of the 20th century. However, the official milestone in modern HSR history is widely recognised as the launch of the Japanese Shinkansen line between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964. At the time of its inauguration, the operational speed on the route reached 210 km/h, a technological breakthrough for its era. Speeds on this line continued to rise between Japan’s major cities in the following decades.
By the late 1970s, European nations emerged as global leaders in the HSR sector. France held the industry’s crown for many years, boasting the current world speed record for wheel-on-rail trains set by TGV POS trains in 2007, reaching 574.8 km/h. It is important to note, however, that real operational speeds were much more modest, with European services typically running at no more than 320 km/h.
Structure of HSR networks operating at 250 km/h and above worldwide in 2000, 2010, and 2023 (enlarge). Source: Analysis by ROLLINGSTOCK Agency based on UIC data
By the year 2000, the total length of high-speed lines operating at speeds over 250 km/h had reached 4,800 km worldwide. European networks accounted for more than 59% of this total, though Japan maintained a significantly more extensive network than any other single country.
The 2000s also marked the emergence of China as the modern global leader in HSR. By 2010, the country had more than 4,500 km of lines operating at speeds of 250 km/h or above, representing nearly 33% of the total network length worldwide. Even then, China’s HSR network was the longest in the world, although the combined length of European high-speed lines was still greater. During the same period, HSR projects were being launched in other countries, including South Korea and Türkiye.
From the late 2000s, China’s HSR construction accelerated rapidly. By the end of 2023, the length of Chinese high-speed lines running at 250 km/h and above exceeded 36,000 km—an eightfold increase since 2010—and accounted for nearly 72% of the global total. In comparison, other regions saw more modest growth: Japan’s network expanded by 25.3% to 2,800 km by 2010, Europe’s by 34.3% to 8,400 km, and other countries collectively tripled their high-speed rail length to around 3,100 km.
In Europe, HSR travel increasingly transcends national borders. Transnational routes have long been in stable operation, and there are dedicated international operators. In recent years, competition among operators on high-speed routes has gained traction, with multiple companies, including private ones, now providing services alongside the primary operators.
Today, the total global length of HSR lines running at speeds of 250 km/h or more exceeds 50,000 km. However, it is important to note that many reviews and official reports broaden the definition of high-speed lines to include tracks with operating speeds as low as 200 km/h, or even slower. For instance, the latest 2023 report from the International Union of Railways (UIC) states that China’s total HSR length exceeded 45,000 km, including:
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- Over 8,500 km of lines with operating speeds up to 200 km/h (19%)
- About 17,300 km of lines with speeds up to 250 km/h (38%)
- More than 19,300 km of lines with speeds up to 350 km/h (43%)
Chinese HSR systems are currently the fastest and most extensive in the world. Only a few countries operate high-speed lines with maximum speeds of up to 320 km/h, while in many others, trains run at speeds up to 300 km/h.
Looking ahead, the length of HSR networks worldwide is expected to continue growing. Existing systems will further develop, partly driven by efforts to reduce the transport sector’s carbon footprint. New countries are joining the HSR club: major projects are already underway in Egypt, India, and Russia, while plans are being discussed for the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Israel, the USA, and Thailand. Relatively new market entrants such as Türkiye, Saudi Arabia, and Morocco also plan to expand their high-speed networks. This broadens the geographic reach of HSR significantly.
High-speed train in France. Source: World Bank Group
Most new and planned high-speed lines are designed with a high degree of separation from conventional railways. However, as high-speed networks expand, integration with conventional lines is inevitable. Moreover, in countries with well-developed rail systems, high-speed lines complement the existing network, enabling the creation of innovative transport offerings without enormous investment. Europe provides notable examples: in France, high-speed trains use conventional tracks to reach major cities, switching to dedicated high-speed lines between them. In Germany, despite a relatively fragmented high-speed network with many sections only around 100 km long, ICE trains run on a connected mixed-route network, linking German cities effectively.
Modern high-speed trains
The fundamental development of rolling stock generally progresses in parallel with infrastructure. However, rolling stock evolves much faster, as its production does not require significant investment in track reconstruction.
Design and manufacturing schools have been established in the countries that first developed HSR: Japan, France, Italy, Spain, and Germany, as well as in several second-wave countries such as South Korea and China. Today, Italian high-speed train manufacturers have all but disappeared, having been acquired over time by various global industry players. Russia, Türkiye, and India are currently working on developing their own high-speed rolling stock, and several other countries have announced plans to enter train production.
Four generations of ICE trains (left to right): ICE 1 to ICE 4, 2016. Source: Siemens Mobility
Each country and manufacturer have followed a unique path to creating their own high-speed trains. Nevertheless, some common trends can be identified.
In the early stages of HSR development, all successful projects for rolling stock and infrastructure were implemented with strong government support. This is consistent across all countries; government bodies set strategic goals and objectives and ensured necessary funding.
The design documentation for the first Japanese, French, and German high-speed trains was developed by national rail operators. Under their oversight, consortia were formed that included local scientific research centres, rolling stock manufacturers, and component suppliers. This comprehensive approach to design and production laid a solid foundation for further technological advancements.
While European operators later transferred the role of innovation hubs for rolling stock development directly to train manufacturers, Japanese operators have retained this function. As a result, in Japan, different cars within a single train set may be produced by various manufacturers. Modern Japanese trains are also co-produced by multiple companies: the N700S by Hitachi and Nippon Sharyo, and the E8 by Hitachi and Kawasaki. Both trains operate at speeds up to 300 km/h and feature distributed traction with a large number of powered cars. The N700S entered commercial service in 2020, followed by the E8 in 2024.
Two Japanese players, Hitachi and Kawasaki, will build a new-generation high-speed Japanese train E10. It is to transport passengers at a speed of up to 320 km/h. Notably, the vehicle is to enter revenue service in Japan in 2030, but its simultaneous delivery and launch in India are already being worked on.
Thanks to SNCF’s order, Alstom is the only manufacturer in the world to produce double-deck high-speed TGV Duplex trains, which have a long and successful history in service. In addition, the future French high-speed Avelia Horizon will be locomotive-hauled and also be double-deck. It is expected to run at a speed of 320 km/h, although the manufacturer claims that the platform allows for increasing the service speed up to 350 km/h.
Among modern high-speed trains, only Talgo’s Avril possesses concentrated traction as well. Moreover, the Spanish trainsets incorporate axle-less, extra-width cars with a tilting body and an automatic track gauge change system. The train was launched in 2024, however, its revenue service had been scheduled for 2020. Currently, Talgo Avril is still in its early service life, which periodically demonstrates various technical issues. The trainset was designed to operate at speeds of up to 330 km/h, but it is currently running at a maximum of 300 km/h.
Talgo Avril train on the plant tracks. Source: Talgo
Another key vector of development for high-speed trainsets is the reduction of rolling stock weight. The bodies of all modern vehicles are manufactured from aluminium alloys, while in recent years, composite materials have been increasingly adopted in rolling stock construction.
Korean Hyundai Rotem, one of the newer manufacturers of high-speed trains, produces vehicles with an axle load of 15 tf, which is among the best figures globally. The latest South Korean high-speed trainset, the EMU320, is built to this axle load specification. It was launched in 2024, operating at a commercial speed of up to 300 km/h, with a design speed of 320 km/h.
German manufacturer Siemens Mobility has been supplying the latest generation of its Velaro platform, the Velaro MS, since 2022. It has an operational speed of up to 300 km/h. The Velaro platform is the most widely deployed in the world; trainsets built on this platform are in service across numerous European countries, as well as in China, Türkiye, and Russia. Several years ago, the German manufacturer announced the development of a new train, the Velaro Novo, with an operational speed of up to 360 km/h. However, no confirmed timeline for its entry into revenue service has been established. Notably is that some groundworks for this train were tested on the 1,520 mm gauge market during trials involving the Sapsan trainsets, which are also based on the Velaro platform.
Special attention should be given to the Chinese Harmony, CRH380, trains, produced on the base of Japanese, German, and Italian-Canadian vehicles. The EMUs are manufactured at Chinese plants, mainly part of CRRC, but involving foreign partners. The trains were developed with a design operational speed of 350 km/h with a demo speed of 380 km/h. The first Harmony trains entered revenue service in 2010 and reached the design speed, as reported.
However, 2011 saw a variety of technical faults, including cracks in axles, false operation of different systems, spontaneous lowering of pantographs. The same year witnessed a collision between high-speed CRH1 and CRH2 trains on the Wenzhou–Ningbo HSR. Collectively, these incidents led to restriction in the maximum operational speed for Harmonys from 350 to 300 km/h, which currently remains in force.
Declared maximum operating speeds of the most modern high-speed trains (enlarge). Source: Analysis by ROLLINGSTOCK Agency
Leveraging experience gained from development and operation of previous generations of trains, China introduced its own Chinese platform of high-speed trains, the CR400 Fuxing, with an operational speed of 350 km/h and a demo of 400 km/h in 2014. The first trains were launched in 2017, with their launch allowing Chinese high-speed rails to return to 350 km/h operations. Currently, more than 500 CR400 trains of various composition are in service. The CR400 trains became the first exported ones, they have been running in Indonesia since 2023.
The high-speed CR450AF with a design speed of 450 km/h. Source: CCTV
The way of Chinese HSR reflects the most important trajectory of technological development for high-speed trains, which is a constant increase of an operational speed. China hasn’t stopped on the CR400’s successes. Late in 2024, a new high-speed train, the CR450, was unveiled, which is to travel with a maximum operational speed of up to 400 km/h, according to manufacturers. The vehicle is to enter revenue service in 2025.
It is important to highlight that within the 1,520 mm gauge region, Russia is currently undertaking a project to develop a HSR system and rolling stock aimed at achieving some of the highest operational performance levels in the world through its own efforts. Among the promising rolling stock projects, only the Chinese CR450 surpasses the Russian train under development. The Japanese, French, and Spanish high-speed trains currently being developed and tested fall short of the Russian design, while the proposed German Velaro Novo has comparable speed characteristics.
A model of the Russian high-speed train was presented at the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum in 2024. Source: Press Service of the Sinara Group
A new HSR line is also under design within the 1,520 mm gauge area in Uzbekistan, where South Korean trains are expected to be supplied. Various HSR projects have been considered multiple times in other Central Asian countries.
No trains worldwide currently operate commercially on high-speed lines at 360 km/h. China is still in the process of deploying projects aiming for higher commercial speeds. On most high-speed lines, the operating speed is around 300 km/h, with only the most advanced Chinese trains running at speeds of up to 350 km/h.
Global experience shows that HSR projects should not be regarded solely as business ventures. History demonstrates that these are strategic, nationwide undertakings aimed at the comprehensive development of the countries involved.
Author: Alexander Polikarpov, Cofounder and Managing partner of ROLLINGSTOCK Agency
